Theoretical Approaches to Media Representations of Age

Hebdige - 1979

• Portray youth as either fun or trouble
• Youth resist hegemony through style
• Represents resistance to dominate ideologies in society
• Take smart objects (clothes or mopeds) and modify them to show alternate values
• Subculture 
• a group of like-minded individuals who feel neglected by society standards and who develop a sense of identity which differs to the dominant on to which they belong

Acland - 1995

• Effects of media representations of delinquent youth maintains social order/hegemony
• Developed concept of the Ideology of Protection:
• The idea that young people need constant surveillance and monitoring
• Representation of youth remains anti-social

Ann Gould - 1999

• Identified 6 stereotypes from the media about youth:
• Sexual
• Artificial Tribe
• Nihilistic
• Not believing in any faith due to the perception that life is pointless
• Rebellious
• Violent
• Self-destructive
• Some (teens) Are Not Really Very Social

All these theorists carry the same theme of youth stereotypes maintaining hegemony.

Giroux - 1997

• Media doesn’t accurately reflect youth identity

Wilkins: Deviancy Amplification Spiral - 1967

• The more rules that are enforced, the more teens are going to want to break them, leading them to then have to deal with the consequences which creates a viscious cycle

Cohen - 1955

• Identified 3 features of media reporting of events:
1. Exaggeration and distortion
• Numbers, damage caused, violence etc.
2. Prediction
• Future conflicts will follow
3. Symbolisation
• Symbols of youth negatively labelled and associated with deviance
• Argued groups that are branded a certain way act out in that stigmatic way

Althusser - 1969

• Ideological state apparatus
• Dominant ideology reinforced through different groups including media
• Divided social institutions into 2 categories:
• Repressive state Apparatus
• Functions through violence (potential or actual)
• Ideological state apparatus
• Functions through ideology
• Ensure the reproduction of the relations of production

Iconography:

• The visual images and symbols used in a work of art or the study or interpretation of these.

AS Media Mock Exam - Key Media Concepts (TV Drama)

The division of people into sets based on perceived economic or social status is the definition of class. The extract depicts the inner workings of the Downton Abby mansion in the midst of a sudden crisis that has emerged. It highlights the differences in class and status of the different characters, due to the fact that mise-en-scene, camera angles, sound and editing differentiate the working class from the upper class.

Firstly, during the establishing shot, camera, mise en scene and sound have been used in order to portray the theme of wealth. For example, the scene begins with a wide angle panning shot. These types of shots are used to give the audience details about the context of the scene in order to figure out what is going on. The scene also cuts away to a wide high angle shot with the woman of the manor at the peak of the high angle as a visual representation to the audience as to the class difference between the denoted boy on a bicycle delivering a telegram and the woman of the manor. Through the use of mise en scene, this shot denotes a large manor with impressive architecture, intricately detailed décor and huge gardens at the front. Moreover, this scene is very well lit with a mixture of natural light, which reflects off of the manor to add to the decadence of the building, and artificial light, hanging from impressive, crystal chandeliers. Additionally, the non-diegetic sound of background music is very elegant and calm sounding, whilst also containing a sense of foreboding due to the mixture of major and minor chords within the piece. Together, these three factors tell the audience that the inhabitants of this manor are wealthy people. The audience are instantly able to infer that the people living in the mansion are wealthy. This is an accurate representation of the upper class bourgeoisie due to the fact that people who have had money passed down through the generations have been known to love in lush, brilliant, detailed manors or castles as a symbol of their wealth and status. It conforms well with the typical genre conventions associated with an upper class soap program due to the fact that the scenery in conjunction with the camera shots and the music ultimately demonstrate how the upper class live. This majorly differs from the proceeding scene whereby the back of the house is shown when the delivery boy gives the newspaper. There are three people in this scene as opposed to just one person at the front of the manor. The magnificent building previously shown has now been replaced with a dark, dismal alleyway with prominently grey coloured surroundings to reflect the bleak, bland atmosphere typically associated with the working class.

Contrastingly, there is a major difference executed between the classes through the use of editing, camera, sound and mise en scene. Editing and camera have been utilised to depict the lower class due to the quick cuts between medium shot, to panning medium shot, to panning two shots. The slow, peacefulness of the previous scene of the woman of the manor looking down at the delivery boy has drastically changed now due to the hustle and bustle created within the scene contrast the fact that the working class are constantly moving about and rushing, whilst the upper class are just relaxed and at ease. Additionally, the lack of eye line match between the scenes emphasises the pace at which the workers are working at. Moreover, the diegetic sound of cutlery, cooking equipment and dialogue being said at a rapid pace is coupled with the diegetic sound from the ringing of the bells, rung from the upper class people that live in the mansion. Interestingly, the typical associations with a manor inhabiting both working and upper class are apparent due to the diegetic dialogue of “No rest for the wicked” (as said by one of the maids) infers that frequent gossip is exchanged about the upper class. This depicts the working class as people who are jealous of the upper class which is an accurate representation of how people in general as well as the working class react to people having the money to do as they please. Furthermore, the monotonous nature of the colour of the clothing of everyone in the room is a mixture of black, white and grey. These are very simple colours and shades and have been shown as part of a dress or head scarf in one solid block of colour. This massively contrasts with the intricately designed night ware shown on the woman of the manor in the preceding scene. The low-key lighting within this scene gives an almost sombre feeling. It also contributes to the stereotype associated with the working class which is that they will forever be working and, just like the lighting around them, haven’t got a bright future. This can also be inferred through the sound of their voice. The regal, received pronunciation in which the upper class speak in is completely contrasted with the accent of the working class being that of origin from the north of London. These combined factors present the audience with the impression that the upper and the working classes are stark opposite. The status that is being portrayed here is that of a very low one, which is an accurate representation of the typical working conditions of the working class when working as maids and servants for the upper class. This scene illustrates clear similarities to the ways in which the lower or working classes were depicted during this period drama’s time frame.

To conclude, director Brian Percival implemented many different shots, sounds, sceneries and editing techniques in order to convey a simple message. The upper and working class of Downton Abbey are very different in terms of how they dress, live, talk and what surrounds their everyday lives.

Gender Theory and Contemporary Media Texts Essay

To what extent do Mulvey’s theory (1975) on the male gaze and Shroeder’s ideas (1998) influence contemporary media texts? Discuss Charlie’s Angels and one other show giving evidence from mise-en-scene, sound etc.

Laura Mulvey’s theory (1975) on the male gaze focuses on how men view women, how women view women, and how women view themselves. She explores the idea that women within the media and advertising are only used as a medium for male enticement, whether the presence of said women has any relevance to the product or not. Johnathan Schroeder’s theory (1998) further develops this theory, emplaning how "To gaze implies more than to look at - it signifies a psychological relationship of power, in which the gazer is superior to the object of the gaze." This implies that the gazer isn't merely looking at the person or object, they are establishing dominance over the object or person with or without their knowledge. I will be specifically discussing "Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle" in comparison to "Spectre".

Firstly, the trailer for "Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle" subverts from Mulvey's Theory, consequently conforming to Miriam Hanson's Theory (1984) of the female gaze (the counter part to the male gaze theory). To exemplify this, at 0:42, characters 'Alex' and 'Dylan' are seen looking at the supposed antagonist of the film through binoculars saying the word "yummy". This use of diegetic dialogue is effective as it proves that male objectification has been steadily increasing since the 1980s as observed by Hanson, therefore, it disproves the theory presented by Mulvey that all women are used purely to please men. This is a very fitting theory to conform to being a contemporary film due to the display of changing perceptions in terms of gender. 

Furthermore, this scene continues at 1:04 and displays allusions that conform to Schroeder this scene continues in which the two characters’ exchange of dialogue comprises of “You always fall for the bad guy” / “Then this guy must be really evil”. This dialogue alludes to sexual desire, another example of male objectification as presented my Hanson, in which a man getting out of the sea is being belittled as an erotic object of desire, there for the pleasure of the two characters.

Moreover, camera shots have been used in order to both coincide and differ from Mulvey’s Theory. For example, at 0:48 a slightly low angle close up shot has been used on the male police officer, after having heard the extent of knowledge that ‘The Angels’. This has connotations of a display of dominance that the policeman is trying to establish over ‘The Angels’ which conforms to the statement made by Schroeder. This is also confirmative that males view females as sexual beings and nothing more as presented by Mulvey due to the fact that the low angle, close up shot as well as the audible decrease in pitch of the policeman’s voice, show that he is objectifying the women. 

However, this is contrasted within the same scene at 0:50 when the exact same shot is being used on one of ‘The Angels’. The use of mise-en-scene denotes her wearing red lipstick which has erotic, temptress connotations as well as lowered glasses alluding to her sexual desires through the use of flirting. This subverts from Schroeder’s theory as the ‘gaze’ from the policeman which is being exhibited doesn’t have the desired effect of establishing superiority over the women. This is due to the fact that this character is gazing back at the officer in an attempt to use her sexuality as a weapon in order to get what she wants. This conforms to Hanson’s theory of male objectification increasing within contemporary media. 

On the other hand, the infamous “James Bond” sequel has been known for action, criminal activity and the ever changing role of the well-known role of the “Bond Girl”. Firstly, unlike “Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle”, “Spectre” accords with Mulvey’s Theory and completely supports the statement made by Schroeder. For instance, at 0:53 there is a close up two shot of James (the protagonist) and another character (the helper) in an embrace. This exemplifies the ‘male gaze’ as introduced by Mulvey due to the fact that the scene denotes the female character with her eyes shut whilst James’ eyes are open and focused on the woman. In terms of the narrative, this female character is important and could be considered as the dispatcher (theory of folk tale character roles created by Vladimir Propp) of the story due to the information that she gives acting as a catalyst for James’ mission. This scene clearly demonstrates how James is exerting superiority over the female character due to eye contact having connotations of confidence and dominance, however seeing as her only action within the next scene is to sleep with James so that he can extract information from her, it demonstrates how she is used merely as a pawn for James and a sexual object for James to use at his disposal. 

Furthermore, a full wide shot is shown in order to portray the female love interest as an objectified character. The denotations from this scene show the female love interest wearing a tight cream green flowy dress, seductively walking towards James who is seated at a table. This is a demonstration of how James’ love interest is being sexualised due to the tightness of the dress evoking erotic feelings within James, as alluded to once she approaches the table and James still has not shifted his gaze upon her. This conforms to Mulvey’s Theory as it shows how James is seen as the character in control whilst the female character is seen coming to him, seemingly being obedient to his needs. Furthermore, this also conforms to Schroeder’s theory due to the fact that James never breaks eye contact with the female love interest compared to her eye contact breakage along her travel to the table. This exerts James’ dominance over the character, conveying his superiority over her.

Moreover, at 2:16, editing is utilised in order to convey the power James has over his female counter part. During this scene, the use of mise-en-scene denotes that James is kissing his lover, also known as the “Bond Girl” at the back of a car being driven. This shot is a low angle close up two shot, however it is also slightly tilted in terms of the camera placement. This is in order to achieve the desired effect of James appearing higher than his lover. This conforms to Schroeder’s theory due to the fact that James is now exercising his already established dominance over his lover as the male in the relationship. Additionally, due to the fact that she is looking up to kiss James, she is placed in a state of vulnerability, being at the service of James’ erotic desires. This conforms to Mulvey’s theory not only because of her vulnerability but due to the fact that the lover of the story isn’t the same girl who James previously slept with in order to gain information about his target, this conforms to the idea that women are used merely as objects for men who have no further purpose than to fulfil their needs. 

To conclude, the theories presented by both Mulvey and Schroeder are both very apparent in contemporary media today. Unfortunately, due to the fact that some people have become accustomed to the ways in which films have been shaped to mould the female characters into suiting the needs of the main male character, famous main stream movies are almost pressured into conforming to Mulvey and Schroeder’s theories due to the proof being that the “Charlie’s Angels” movie franchise being significantly less popular, although still well-known, in comparison to the “James Bond” series.

Application of Propp's Theory: Guardians of the Galaxy

Gender Analysis and Theorists

Objectification - Seeing or treating a person as an object

Archetypes - behaviour and appearance matches the appearance as a stereotype

Stereotypes - labels attached to someone based upon a social factor

Hegemony - leadership or dominance, especially by one state or social group over others.

Voyeurism - A perversion in which a person receives sexual gratification from seeing sexual images.

Lura Mulvey: "The Male Gaze" 1975

• One that deals with how an audience views the people presented 
• How a man looks at a woman
• How a woman looks at a women
• How women look at themselves

Visual pleasure and narrative cinema:

• Women are used for the visual pleasure of men
• Made to seem like sexual objects
• Women took the passive part of a film, men play an active part
• In film audience they have to view characters from the view from the perspective of the heterosexual male
• Camera lingers on the curves of the females Women presented as sexual spectacle 
• Objects of pleasure for the characters and audience
• The way women are viewed in cinema is presented as unequal
• Men fetishise women which is referred to as 'fetishistic scopophilla'
• Used to avoid castration

Criticisms of Mulvey and The Male Gaze Theory

• Some women enjoy being looked at such as beauty pageant contestants
• The gaze is not always used sexually but also to compare body image or clothing etc.
• The theory does not consider female spectators, only heterosexual males
• Since the 1980s there has been a large increase in the sexualisation of the male body

Miriam Hanson: "The Female Gaze" 1984

• Women also view men as erotic objects of desire
• Increase in the sexualisation of men since the 1980s

Jonathan Schroeder, Theorist 1998

"To gaze implies more than to look at - it signifies a psychological relationship of power, in which the gazer is superior to the subject".

Charlie's Angels Representation of Gender

Examples of empowerment:

1. Their sexuality 
2. Owning a Ferrari 
3. Motor cycle
4. adrenaline sports  
5. Rescuing men 
6. Surfing
7. Display of strength to punch through a window
8. Taking an active role

Examples of sexuality:

1. They have to answer to a male boss
2. Sexual outfits
3. Surfing innuendos 
4. Stripping

Narrative Theories

Todorov's Theory - 1969

"Believed to be able to be applied to any film. He believed that all films followed the same narrative pattern."

• Equilibrium 
• Disruption of Equilibrium
• Recognition of Disruption 
• Reparation of Damage 
• New Equilibrium

Vladimir Propp - 1920

"The Morphology of the Folk Tale" (similar to Todorov's Theory)

• Recognised that folk tales are similar.
• Concerned with the basic situations and struggles.
• Populated by the same stock characters.
• Characters have certain roles that provide the structure to texts.
• Identified the 32 categories of action called "function".
• Identified sphere of action.
• Roles provide structure to media
• The character roles perform certain functions

8 Character Roles

• The hero - the character who seeks something
• The villain - opposes or bocks the hero’s quest.
• The donor - provides an object which has some magical property
• The dispatcher - sends the hero on his way by providing a message.
• The false hero - disrupts the hero’s hope of reward by pressing false claims.
• The helper - aids the hero
• The princess - acts as a reward for the hero and as an object of the villains scheming
• The father - acts to reward the hero for his efforts.

Levi Strauss - 1940s

"All stories depend on binary oppositions - a conflict between two sides/qualities which are opposites"

• Cowboys vs. Indians
• Settlers vs. Natives
• The Law vs. Outlaws
• Good vs. Evil

Branston and Stafford - 2001

"Soaps use stereotypes in terms of accents and mannerisms in order to inform the audience as to where the media text is set"

• Dark, heavy makeup
• Long, stylised nails
• Elongated vowels

These carry the stereotypes of being in Essex, providing the audience with a location as to where the piece is set.

Dyer - 1979

"Stereotypes are all about power. Those with power stereotypes those without"

Roland Barthes - 1974

"Narratives are like a ball of string, it can be unravelled in either one way or many ways"

Semiologist - study of signs and their meanings

Media texts can be:

• Open - many interpretation
• Closed - single interpretation

The ways that narrative is analysed are called narrative codes which have 5 categories:

1. Hermeneutic/Enigma Code
• Refers to elements of the story that aren't fully explained, becomes mystery for audience
• Keeps the audience guessing until the final scene to reach catharsis
• Works with the Proairetic code to develop tension and engage the audience
• "two sequential codes"
2. Proairetic/Action Code
• Builds tension
• Refers to action or event that indicates that something is about to happen
• "Action and reaction"
• Works with the Hermeneutic code to develop tension and engage the audience
• "two sequential codes"
3. Semantic Code
• Connotations within the story
• Gives meaning beyond the denoted meaning
4. Symbolic Code
• Organises semantic codes into broader and deeper sets of meaning
• Done through antithesis:
• A rhetorical or literary device. A person or thing that is the direct opposite of something else.
5. Cultural/Referential Code
• Refers to anything within text that refer to scientific, historical and cultural knowledge.
• Points out the shared knowledge we have of how the world works

Gerbner - 1986

• Effects of television on viewers
• Repetitive nature of television means TV influences how people see the world
• Cultivation theory
• “The more time people spend ‘living’ in the television world, the more likely they are to believe social reality portrayed on television”

Stuart Hall Encoding and Decoding - 1980

• Cultural theorist and professor of psychology
• Looked at the role of audience positioning and interpretation

Suggested Three Ways we may Read Media Texts:

Dominant Reading

• Accepting of preferred reading
• Read how the author wants it
• Code seems natural and transparent

Negotiated Reading

• Reader partly believes code
• Broadly accepts reading
• Personalises reading to fit their position, experiences and interests

Opposition Reading

• Rejection of the reading
• Due to social position 

Gramsci - 1920s

• Developed the concept of hegemony

Analysis of Coronation Street: TV Drama

Code: a system of signs that can be decoded to create meaning 

Technical codes - the way the text is technically constructed e.g. Camera angles, framing, typography etc.

Verbal codes - everything to do with the written or spoken language

Symbolic codes - codes decoded on a connotation level. Usually drawn from experience and understanding other media texts. Can create an emotion within the audience e.g. Pathetic fallacy of rain in movie refers to a sad emotion.

Convention: the criteria that needs to be met within a certain genre e.g. Unicorns and demons in a fantasy film.

Codes and conventions in media separated into 3 categories: 

• Technical (camera angles, movements and shots)
• Symbolic (clothing, colours)
• Written and audio (music)

Contextual analysis - establishing a mythology of analysing

Medium : print, television, radio, film, Internet

Purpose : to inform, entertain, persuade, educate, gain profit

Form : drama, light entertainment, above or below the line advertising, newspaper

Genre : Sci-fi, soap opera, documentary, game show, broadsheet

Tone : serious, comic, ironic, formal, informal, objective, personal, scientific

Style : realistic, expressionist, conventional, unconventional, traditional, modern

Other categories : nationality, target audience, director, star, public sector

Production : anything involved in the making of the media text

Coronation street: 2012-02-10: Episode 1

Medium : television

Purpose : to entertain

Form : drama, gossip

Genre : soap opera

Tone : slightly comical, serious, personal

Style : conventional

Other categories : northern stereotypes, tea for everyone. Negative stereotype of underage pregnancies as well as underage couples facing a lot of trouble when trying to raise a child on their own. Typical attitude of children being negative to their step parents. Clothing of the older people are more bleak in colour and typical "old people" clothes, compared to the teens who are more in style with more vibrant colours. target audience: typically people aged 30+. 

Plot

In this scene, it is revealed that a young couple are having trouble balancing bringing up a child as well as paying the bills. the child won't stop crying leaving the mother helpless and the father is working long hours to try and pay for overdue bills. The mother then has to go to the bank to pay for the bills, but leaves the baby in the house, alone. 

Furthermore, a man and a woman are in a relationship when it is revealed that she has to go to London in order to pursue her career in the arts. This puts a strain on their relationship and results in the man feeling very depressed due to the potential of a break up occurring in the future. The dynamic changes when it is arranged that he will move with her to London so that they can still be together, however this isn't exactly a solution. She confesses that she has applied to be on a televised dating show which ail gain her "great exposure" which causes the couple to break up for real.

Moreover, there are three story lines theta aren't fully developed in the scene. Firstly, a little boy, his dad and his step-mum are spending the day together, however the little boy acts very coldly towards her and it is revealed that some sort of intervention is needed to be put in place. Additionally, a seemingly 'uptight' woman and a willing to do anything to please his girlfriend man are discussing how they are going to spend her birthday, discussing how they are taking her out for a spa and beauty treatments. In addition, , we meet another couple with a child who are discussing a promotion that the father has got. 

Finally, there is a lot of conflict  of interest shown with a son and mother who are both older. It is revealed that they are not happy about the fact that the mother has invested in a business opportunity as they feel that it is a shameful thing to be investing into. 

Stereotypes

There are a mixture of negative and positive stereotypes that are addressed within this episode. Firstly there is the stereotype that couples who are very young and have children will struggle. This is a widely accepted stereotype as you are less likely to have a stable job and support from others as a couple who are young with a child. There is also the stereotypical behaviour of the woman staying at home to look after this child whilst the man is out working to bring in the money to pay the bills. Additionally there is the stereotype that the baby cries all of the time and the mother, being a young parent, doesn't know what to do or how to handle it. 

Additionally there is the stereotype that in the North, all problems can be fixed with a cup of tea. Tea is used with there is a situation where a couple aren't sure what they're going to do seeing as they aren't comfortable with their current living conditions. This is something that depicts British culture as a whole as well as Northern culture seeing as tea is widely known to be the comfort drink in tough times in England.

Furthermore, there is the stereotypical behaviour of being ill-mannered towards step parents. This behaviour is expressed by a child towards his step mother. It is a common belief seeing as children to step parents usually act out due to not being comfortable with the fact that they now consider themselves to be part of a "broken" family. This negative stereotype isn't the case for all children of step parents however it is a typical attitude that can be seen from this type of situation. 

Moreover, the choice of clothing by the director is very stereotypical in some aspects. To exemplify this, analysing this episode from a mise-en-scène point of view, the characters that are older are typically dressed in bleak colours with very simple fashions and aren't complying to the more up to date fashion trends. The younger characters however are more fashionable and are wearing more vibrant colours with more current trends. This gives off the impression that the director wanted the audience to feel that the show is authentic and a depiction of what real life people that fall into this category would look like.